Developmental Processes Related to Intergenerational Transmission of Culture: Growing up with Two Cultures in the United States

The transmission and conditions that result in bicultural social development of children and adolescents in the United States represents the central focus of this chapter. Biculturalism is defined as behavioral competence and positive affect in two cultures. The literature surrounding bicultural development is reviewed from four perspectives: (a) immigrant children and adolescents in the United States, (b) second generation Americans or the offspring of immigrants, (c) later generation ethnic children and adolescents, and (d) mixed ethnic/racial heritage individuals. Each of these situations presents different socialization contexts and challenges for parents and offspring in the transmission of culture across generations and the rationale for biculturalism. In this analysis, the concepts of acculturation, marginality, and biculturalism are examined for their relevance in today’s American context. The focus is on contrasting the assumptions inherent in each of these constructs. Although the primary focus of the empirical literature reviewed in this paper is from studies that have employed Hispanics and Asian Americans, the position taken here is that a general model of cultural transmission and biculturalism is applicable to other ethnic and racial groups. An important assumption derived in the analysis is that maintenance of ethnic identity and bicultural orientation is often imposed on individuals depending on their phenotype which mark them as "outsiders" to the majority group. Thus, ethnic loyalty and biculturalism can serve as positive coping responses in a racist society. Finally, regardless of the reasons for bicultural socialization, the psychological and social benefits of bicultural competence are discussed.